- Airway lesion (chronic obstruction)
- Sequestration
- Infection, Inflammation
- Cystic fibrosis
- Kartagner's syndrome
- Allergic brochopulmonary aspergilliosis
- Immunodeficiencies (hypogammaglobinaemia, myeloma, lymphoma)
- Reflux inhalation injury
- William Campbell syndrome (and other congenital ones)
- Aspiration
- Yellow nail syndrome/ Young's syndrome
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